Copyright 2006 Professor Richard F. Hirsh
Virginia Tech
Department of History
Blacksburg, VA 24061-0117
Phone: 540-231-5601; Fax: 540-231-8724
E-mail: rhirsh @ vt.edu
Introductory Discussion
I. Object of course: understand how technology shaped society and vice-versa
in the 20th and 21st centuries. Major focus on US and other industrial countries.
II. Basic themes of course
A. Interactions between technology and society (i.e., cars, typewriters)
B. Government's role in technology is big in 20th century
C. Public became much more involved in technology decision making in second
half of 20th century.
III. Slide Show--preview of course.
IV. Requirements of course.
A. Participation--role of anchor-person
B. Paper assignment
C. Miscellaneous items
Topic 1: Setting for Technology in America
I. Background: Agrarian society
A. Moral virtues of farming
B. Lack of manufacturing ability
II. Manufacturing as a Defense of Freedom
A. Sugar Act, 1764
B. Non-importation and manufacturing
C. Technology becomes "good"--an element of maintaining freedom
III. Other Factors encouraging technological advance
First use of Arkwright spinning machines in US, 1790, by Samuel Slater.
By 1800, 7 Arkwright mills, containing 2,000 spindles operated in US. 1810:
14 woolen mills; 87 cotton mills. Annual product worth $19 million. 1813:
Boston Manufacturing Co. establishes first textile factor to conduct :hp1.all:ehp1.
operations for converting cotton into cloth by power under a single management.
Other features of burgeoning textile industry: large capital investment,
recruitment of New England farm girls housed in dormitories, production
of standardized cloth requiring minimum skills of operators. 1820s: Power
weaving and spinning expands in Massachusetts (Lowell [the "Manchester
of America"] and Lawrence). Hand weaving disappears in New England. Number
of spindles increases to 2,280,000. In 1859, 5,235,000 spindles were in
operation.
Arms manufacturing
1798, Eli Whitney developed system of making interchangeable parts for
guns. US government establishes factories in Connecticut and Virginia (Harpers
Ferry) to manufacture "mass produced" arms.
Iron industry
1803: Oliver Evans establishes a shop to produce steam engines. 1817: First
use of continuous process for producing bar iron by puddling and rolling.
Establishment of specialized shops for making steam engines (Baldwin Works,
1832, Norris Works, 1834). Rapid replacement of charcoal for coal in 1840s.
(1840: First successful use of anthracite coal to produce pig iron.) By
1859, in terms of output, anthracite iron held first place, followed by
charcoal iron, bituminous coal iron, and coke iron. Large scale adoption
of steam power in iron works (in 1840s and 50s).
In 1859, the value of products of U.S. industry exceeded for the first
time the value of agricultural products. In gross value of products, flour
milling ranked first, followed by the iron industry.
Topic 2: Iron Structures and Engineering in the 19th Century
I. Basic features of iron: stronger, lighter
II. First "experimental" buildings
A. "Fireproof" textile mills, 1790s
B. Cast iron walls, 1848
III. New techniques in using iron
A. I-beam (Eaton Hodgkinson & William Fairbairn) 1840s
B. Steel manufacturing (Henry Bessemer and others) 1856
IV. Exploitation of new techniques in buildings
A. Crystal Palace
(Joseph Paxton) 1851. More on Crystal
Palace
B. Railroad stations, skyscrapers, etc.
V. Exploitation of new techniques in suspension bridges--an example of
totally new structures using a material that is now produced in quantity
and at relatively low cost
Names: Stephen Hales, Joseph Black, Henry Cavendish, Joseph Priestley,
John Dalton, A.W. Hoffman, W.H. Perkin, L. Pasteur, Joseph Lister, A. Kolbe,
O. Bismark.
Topic 6: The Growth of Large Technological Systems II: The Electrical Industries
I. Development of Electrical Science
A. William Gilbert and De Magnete (1600)
B. Static Electricity
1. A new "industry"
2. Benjamin Franklin's experiments
a) Single fluid theory (1748)
b) Practical application--the lightning rod (1752)
C. Current electricity
1. L. Galvani (1790s)
2. A. Volta and the battery (1800)
D. Electromagnetism
1. H.C. Oersted--electric field makes magnetic field (1820)
2. M. Faraday (and
J. Henry)--magnetic field makes electric field (1831)
II. Electric Communications Industry
A. Visual telegraph systems
B. Static electric telegraphs
C. Galvanic telegraphs
1. S. Sommering's telegraph (1809)
2. W. Cooke and C. Wheatstone's telegraph in England (1837)
Topic 7: Business and Technology: A Link to the 20th Century
I. Introduction: Technology and Business transformed in the 19th Century
II. Background: Special circumstances in US
A. Size of Market
B. Domestic market growth
III. Impact of Railroad
A. Railroads (and telegraph) as infrastructure for business
B. Management innovation: hierarchical middle management system
C. Financial innovations due to capital needs of railroads
IV. Industrial Revolution in Production and Overcapacity
A. Overproduction and lower prices
B. Business combinations and cartels
C. Reactions: Interstate Commerce Act (1887) and Sherman Antitrust Act
(1890)
V. Business transforms technology: the Industrial Research Laboratory
A. Origins of the IRL
1. German chemical industry
2. Science brought into industry
B. IRLs in the US
1. Three impediments
2. Three phases of introducing scientists into business
a. Scientist as consultant
b. Scientist as troubleshooter
c. Scientist in IRL
C. Edison's and General
Electric's labs: important precedents
D. Conclusion: Science-technology relationship institutionalized in IRL
in US by 1910.
Diagrams
from class of Middle Management System and Business and Technology Flowchart
(PDF file)
Information
about first exam
Part
I Review Information
Topic 8: Technology and Industrial Management
I. Background: Cottage industry to factory
II. Use of Electrical Motors in Industry: A major change in factory organization
and efficiency
A. DC and AC motors
B. Electrified factories and efficiency improvements
III. "Rationalization" of Production = "Mass Production" American-style
A. Roots of assembly line and mass production
B. Ford's Auto assembly line: pinnacle of success of mass production and
assembly line--also reasons for failure (More
info on Ford)
IV. "Rationalization" of Labor Management
A. Scientific Management of Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915)
B. The Human Relations movement in labor management
Share of Power for Mechanical Drive in Industries
Year
Steam Power
Water Power
Electric Motors
1870
52%
48%
0%
1880
64%
36%
0%
1890
78%
21%
less than 1%
1900
81%
13%
5%
1910
65%
7%
25%
1920
39%
3%
53%
1930
16%
1%
78%
Source: W.D. Devine, Jr. "From Shafts to Wires: Historical Perspective
on Electrification," Journal of Economic History 63 (1983): 354.
Ford Model T Production
Year
Sales
Price (1958$)
% Market Share
1910
32,000
3,000
10.7
1912
170,000
2,000
22.1
1914
308,000
1,800
48.0
1916
735,000
1,500
38.6
1921
971,000
950
55.4
1923
2,019,000 peak
950
47.5
1927
424,000 retooling
850
10.6
Topic 9: Revolution in Transportation: Development and Social Impact of
the Automobile
I. Origins and Technical Development
A. Internal combustion engine
1. E. Lenoir, 1860
2. N.A. Otto (1832-91)- 1876: 4-stroke engine
3. G. Daimler (carburetor) and K. Benz (spark system) 1890s-1900s
(Click here
for a somewhat irreverant, but informative, history of the automobile and
its social impact.)
Production and Ownership Boom of Automobiles in US
Year
No. Registrations
Population (mill.)
Car/Person Ratio
1900
8,000
76
1:9500
1910
460,000
92
1:200
1920
8,000,000
106
1:13
1930
23,000,000
123
1:5.3
1940
27,000,000
132
1:4.8
1969
69,000,000
201
1:2.3
Topic 10: Revolution in Transportation: Aviation Technology
I. Origins of Aviation Technology in late 19th/early 20th century
A. Early pioneers: Montgolfier
Brothers (1782-3); George Cayley (1799); Otto Lillienthal (1880s &
90s); Octave Chanute (1890s); Samuel Langley (1900s).
Topic 12: Yesterday's Tomorrows: Technology and the Future
I. Background: American love of science and technology
II. Theme 1: Technology as a solution to fears and problems
A. Technology as a deterrent to war
B. Technology overcoming problems of pollution, etc.
III. Theme 2: Converting a "bad" technology into "good" technology (Prime
example: nuclear power)
IV. Theme 3: Technological predictions for commercial purposes
V. Conclusion: "Predicting" the future is often a "conservative" undertaking,
reflecting fears, hopes, and values more than views of future based on
"scientific" methods of technology assessments.
US Patents Granted (Source: NSF, Science Indicators, 1985 Report and NSF,
Pocket
Data Book, 1996)
Year
To US
To Foreign
For/Tot
Of US Total, Patents % to
Granted
Inventors
Inventors
Ratio
Corps
Indivs.
1960
39,472
7,698
16.3%
N/A
N/A
1961
40,154
8,214
16.9%
68.1%
28.0%
1965
50,332
12,525
19.9%
70.9%
25.9%
1970
47,077
17,352
26.9%
74.3%
21.4%
1975
46,717
25,285
35.1%
71.6%
23.9%
1980
37,356
24,463
39.6%
69.5%
26.6%
1984
38,364
28,837
42.9%
72.9%
23.2%
1988
40,000*
39,000*
1991
43,000*
41,000*
* = approximate
Topic 14: The Computer Revolution
I. Basic Definition: What is a computer?
II. Origins of the computer
A. One tradition: automated machines (automata, clockmakers' toys, etc.)
B. Second tradition: calculating devices (Pascal's, Leibniz, Napier, etc.)
C. Peak of mechanical tradition with Charles Babbage (1792-1871)
1. Difference engine (around 1812)
2. "Analytical" machine (1833-71; never finished)
a. "Mill" to do calculations
b. Mechanism to receive information from cards
c. Print-out mechanism
d. Transfer mechanism (to take information from input machine to calculator)
e. "Store" to hold numbers it might use later
III. Developments in Logic and Hardware
A. Logic
1. Boole (1850s) and
establishment of calculus of logic
2. Others: Whitehead and Russell (1900s); Turing (1936)
B. Hardware: Jacquard loom, Hollerith's
card reading
machine, Shannon and symbolic logic for electrical circuits.
History of IBM.
IV. Post-WWII developments
A. War motivated work on computers for ballistics problems
1. Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC-1946)
2. UNIVAC I by Remington-Rand, first commercial computer in early 1950s
B. Development of languages (FORTRAN--1954-57)
V. Conclusion: concepts and ideas about how to make a machine execute steps
precisely developed independently of hardware that could turn concepts
into reality. After World War II, technology and ideas converged to create
modern computers.
NASA Appropriations for Research and Development (in $ mill)
Fiscal Year
Total NASA Approp
R&D for Apollo
1959
330.9
10.1
1961
964.0
190.3
1963
3,674.1
1,160.6
1965
5,250.0
2,708.9
1967
4,968.0
2,877.9
1969
3,995.3
2,205.0
1971
3,312.6
994.5
1973
3,407.7
128.7
1975
3,226.7
1977
3,819.1
1979
4,350.2
1981
5,500
1983
6,500
1985
7,500
Topic 17: The Restive Public of Science and Technology
I. Introduction: The public wants more say in science and technology
II. New public involvement in decisions about sci/tech. Why?
A. Disenchantment with sci/tech after World War II
B. Public funds go to sci/tech--people want say in use of money
C. Public is affected by effects of sci/tech
1. local risks (example: nuclear power plant citing)
2. global risks (example: decay of ozone layer)
III. Public involvement in "trans-scientific" issues
A. Examples of such issues: low level radiation, safety of nuclear power
plants, safety of genetically altered organisms. Require judgements, evaluation
of values, and ethics instead of a simple analysis of technical factors.
B. Participatory mechanisms for public involvement
IV. Conclusion: Does the public interfere with science and technology?
Federal Funding of R&D (Current $)
Year
$ Billions
% of Federal Budget
% GNP
1945
1.6
1.6
1954
3.1
6.4
1957
4.5
1960
8.7
8.4
1.72
1963
11.2
1.88
1966
14.0
13.0
1.85
1969
14.9
9.0
1.58
1972
15.8
1.33
1977
21.6
1.13
1982
36.5
1.19
1988
59.2 est.
1989
65.9 est.
1990
65.8
1991
64.1
1992
68.6
1993
70.4
1994
69.4
1995
71.0
1996
69.4
Sources after 1960: NSF documents.
Topic 18: Energy in American History
I. Previous Energy Crises
A. Energy sources in transition
B. Technological "fixes" and luck
II. 20th Century Sources of Energy
A. Coal--king at beginning of century
B. Oil--discovered in 1859, important sources by 1910
C. Natural gas--transport problems; useful after WWII
D. Nuclear--gov't pushed after WWII. Used for electricity.
III. Problems with energy
A. Growing demand
1. Growing population and per capita demand
2. Greater industrial use; more energy-intensive technologies
Per capita energy consumption in the US increased 1.4% annually since 1900.
Per capita energy consumption increased 1.8% annually since 1950 and 2.6%
annually from 1970 to 1973. Some data from US Census Bureau., Statistical
Abstracts, at http://www.census.gov/prod/3/98pubs/98statab/sasec19.pdf
, and US Dept. of Energy, at http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/energy.overview/aer/aer0103.txt, and http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/energy.overview/aer1999/excel/aer0501.xls.
US Refiner Acquisition Cost of Oil (Current $/BBL)
Year
Price
Year
Price
Date
Price
Date
Price
Date
Price
1964
$2.88
1979
$17
1/3/86
$26
5/86
$18
1/92
$20
1968
2.94
1981
35
1/31/86
18
4/88
17
3/94
$16
1972
3.39
1983
28
2/21/86
13
4/89
20
95
$15
1974
9
1985
26
3/28/86
11
11/89
$19
9/98
$12
98
$12.52
99
$17.56
2000
$28.23
Source of US Refiner Acquisition Cost of Oil data: http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/energy.overview/monthly.energy/txt/mer9-1.
Topic 19: The Electric Utility Industry as the Infrastructure for American
Life and Business
I. Origins of the electric utility industry
A. Edison's accomplishment--system of power generation technology,
distribution technology, and end-use technology. 1882 Pearl Street Station,
NY
B. Competition and victory of AC (alternating current), 1890s
II. Success of electric utility industry in becoming an element of the
infrastructure of American life and business
A. Innovations in technology
1. Steam turbines--overcame limits of reciprocating steam engines
2. Increased size and efficiency of turbines and generators
B. Innovations in management concepts
1. Learning how to price product: fixed costs and operating costs
2. Holding companies: for raising money for the most capital intensive
industry in the US
3. Regulation of utilities: to legitimate consolidation that is made possible
with the bigger technology
III. Post World War II era and new challenges
A. Promotion of electricity usage: for better living (presumably)
B. Problems in the '60s and '70s: The EUI in Transition
C. Reorganization of nuclear power. AEC becomes Energy Research and Development
Administration & Nuclear Regulatory Commission in 1974. Then becomes part of the
Department of Energy.
Sources of Energy for Electricity Generation (in Per Cent)
Year
Coal
Oil
Gas
Nuclear
Hydro
Other
2000
51.8
2.9
16.1
19.9
7.2
2.2
1999
50.8
3.3
15.4
19.2
8.6
2.3
1997
52.5
2.7
14.5
17.8
10.2
2.3
1995
50.9
2.2
15.3
20.1
9.3
2.2
1993
52.9
3.5
13.4
19.1
8.8
2.4
1991
51.8
3.9
12.8
20.1
8.2
2.4
1989
53.4
5.5
12.2
17.8
9.2
1.8
1987
56.9
4.6
10.6
17.7
10.2
1985
56.8
4.1
11.8
15.5
11.4
1983
54.5
6.2
11.9
12.7
14.7
1981
52.4
9.0
15.1
11.9
11.6
1979
47.9
10.8
14.7
11.4
12.7
1977
46.4
16.8
14.4
11.8
10.6
1975
44.5
15.1
15.6
9.0
15.8
1973
45.6
16.8
18.3
4.5
14.8
1971
44.3
13.6
23.2
2.4
16.5
1970
46.1
11.9
24.4
1.4
16.2
1960
53.5
6.1
21.0
0.1
17.4
Source of data from 1989 and later: U.S. Department of Energy,
at http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/energy.overview/aer/aer0802.txt (4/14/99).
Topic 21: The Origins and Impact of the Environmental Movement
I. Introduction
II. Origins of movement
A. Preservation vs. Conservation
Sierra Club B. Early 1900s Legislation
III. Postwar Exuberance, Abundance, and Environmental Damage
A. Prosperity
B. Environmental Consequences of Prosperity
IV. 1950s, Emergence of Concern
A. Specific environmental onslaughts
B. 1960s Legislation
V. 1960s, Counterculture Movement
A. Disaffection with authority and critiques of
growth
B. Rachel
Carson and environmental catastrophes
VI. 1970s and Substantive Government Action
A. National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (signed
1/1/70)
B. Earth Day 1970 (Earth Day pages 1
and 2)
C. Opposition to nuclear power
D. New approach: "Sue the bastards"--Environmental
Defense Fund VII. 1980s and later
A. Legislation
B. Reagan backlash
"Surviving the Greenhouse"--MSNBC
story
Slides of section review. Slide
1Slide
2 Information
aobut the Final Exam
Topic 22: Environmental vs. Energy Needs: The Alaska Pipeline
I. Introduction: TAP story as a way to highlight concerns about technology
and society: "big technology," energy crisis, environment, native rights,
states rights, etc.
II. TAP History
A. Background of oil in Alaska
B. Big strike in 1968--> big opportunities--big challenges
1. Cold oil or hot oil
2. Above-ground or below-ground pipeline
3. Original plans: mostly below-ground, finished in 1972, cost= $900 mill.
C. Environmental concerns
1. NEPA of 1969...a new "complication"
2. Court suits, EIS, earthquake concerns
D. Political resolution of concerns: TAP Act of 1973
III. Hardware and organizational problems resolved
A. Haul road
B. Thermal problems with pipe. VSM
C. Earthquake protection
D. Pump stations, safeguards, completion in 1977
E. Largest and most expensive project ever undertaken by private industry.
Cost: around $8 billion.