Objectives:
In 1973, Congress passed the Endangered Species Act, a sweeping and (as it turned out) controversial environmental initiative. This course examines the deep history of that act, beginning in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when scholars debated whether extinction can actually occur. In addition to exploring the stories of several lost or vanishing species, readings will examine the individuals, ideas, institutions, and policies that have developed around the threat of wildlife extinction, with a special focus on the role of naturalists. This course, which has been developed out of the instructor's current research project, uses readings, videos, student-led discussions, writing assignments, and a major research paper to explore how Americans have tried to grapple with the issue of wildlife extinction.

Requirements:
1. Attendance and Participation:
This class is designed to facilitate active learning and give students a primary role in the presentation and discussion of class material. To achieve these goals, students are expected to attend each class meeting, to complete the assigned reading before class, and to offer informed contributions to the class discussion.

2. Weekly Analytical Reaction Papers:
To sharpen writing skills, help focus ideas, and facilitate discussion, on most weeks during the first half of the semester each participant will turn in a short (ca. 1 p., double spaced) analytical reaction paper. While I may occasionally assign specific topics for these papers, in most cases you will be given wide latitude in how you approach this assignment. You may assess the strengths and weaknesses of the assigned reading, respond to its major arguments, critically examine its theoretical and/or methodological frameworks, relate it to other readings for the course, or some combination of these approaches. Simple summaries will not suffice; analytical reaction papers must come to terms with the significance and meaning of the reading. I want you to demonstrate that you have read and given serious thought to the material for that week. Regardless of the particular strategy you adopt for doing this, your reaction papers should also be concise, well-written, and carefully proofread. Reaction papers will be graded using an informal check/check+/ check- evaluation system. Occasionally we may also do peer evaluations of them. Reaction papers must be turned in by the beginning of the class in which they are due to receive credit; failure to turn in reaction papers will result in a grade of zero for that assignment.

3. Discussion Anchors:
Each week one or more volunteers (depending on the final size of the class) will be responsible for leading class discussion. Discussion anchors are expected to be especially familiar with the reading for the day and to compose a set of questions to help guide our discussions. A single set of discussion questions (which should be jointly constructed when there are two or more discussion anchors) must be posted on the class listserv no later than twenty-four hours before class. During class discussion anchors will not only be responsible for leading discussion, but also be available to answer questions, share resources, and summarize major arguments of the reading. No formal presentation is necessary, but discussion anchors may provide a brief introduction to the discussion if they wish. Creative discussion formats (e.g., class debates, in-class group projects, etc.) are welcome.

4. Research Paper:
All participants in the seminar are required to complete a ca. 15 page double spaced (or ca. 4000 word or so) paper on a topic of their choice (made in consultation with the instructor). The paper must be based on original research and use a broad range of appropriate primary and secondary source materials. It should also contain proper documentation (notes and bibliography) cited in the standard format historians generally use (i.e., the styles in the most recent editions of Kate Turabian, Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, or Dissertations or The Chicago Manual of Style). Early initiation and consistent effort throughout the term are crucial to the production of a successful paper. To encourage students to begin working early and to provide opportunities for feedback from others in the course, participants will occasionally be asked to report to the class on how their work is progressing. In addition, a preliminary topic choice, an abstract /working bibliography, and an initial draft are due according to the schedule below. At one of the sessions near the end of the semester, students will formally present their research to the rest of the class. The final paper is due on the last day of class (see schedule, below).

Some potential ideas for research paper topics include the history of:

• A Particular Endangered or Extinct Species (e.g., ivory-billed woodpecker, blue whale)
  
• A Key Idea or Concept Related to Extinction (e.g., balance of nature, biodiversity, keystone species)
  
• The Pleistocene Overkill Debate
  
• Important Endangered-Species Legislation (e.g., Endangered Species Act, Marine Mammal Protection Act, Migratory Bird Act)
  
• Endangered-Species "Success Stories" (e.g., the alligator, peregrine falcon, American eagle)
  
• Particularly Controversial Endangered Species (e.g., snail darter, northern spotted owl, red wolf, California condor, gray wolf)
  
• The Bomb and Concern about Human Extinction
  
• Institutions that Focus on Endangered Species (e.g., Emergency Conservation Committee, IUCN, WWF, ICBP)
  
• Individuals Who Have Focused on the Threat of Extinction (e.g., William T. Hornaday, Harold J. Coolidge, Edward O. Wilson)

5. Reading:
The following books should be at the University Bookstore, Volume Two Bookstore, and the Tech Bookstore. They may also be purchased online (at, e.g., amazon.com, bn.com, bookfinder.com, or half.com). In addition I have placed copies of them on reserve at Newman Library.

• Christopher Cokinos, Hope Is the Thing with Feathers
  
• Thomas Dunlap, Saving America's Wildlife
  
• Andrew Isenberg, Destruction of the Bison
  

In addition to the assigned books, supplemental readings will occasionally be posted on the Web. These are indicated on the schedule, below.

6. Grades:
Grades for the course will be based on the following:

Attendance and participation	20%
Reaction papers	20%
Discussion anchor	7.5%
Abstract and bibliography	7.5%
Draft research paper	10%
Research presentation	10%
Final research paper	25%

7. Honor Code:
Students are expected to follow the Virginia Tech Honor Code for all assignments. I don't mind if you consult with your classmates for homework and paper assignments, but any work you turn in should ultimately represent your own thoughts and words. Otherwise we would all be forced to live in a world of deceit and distrust that most of us would prefer not to inhabit.

A Personal Note:
I am here to help you learn. Please feel free to contact me if you have any questions, concerns, special needs, or difficulties related to this course (or even if you just want to talk about the issues it raises). I know that approaching a professor can be intimidating, but I want to assure you that I enjoy meeting with students, and I do everything possible to make myself accessible.

Schedule:
Subject to revision as necessary (any changes will be announced in class and posted on the class homepage). Reading assignments are to be completed by the time of class on the day they are listed below. Unless otherwise noted, the numbers in the reading assignment column refer to chapters. On-line readings are marked as OLR, and are available on the class homepage. The user name for on-line readings is: walden and the password is: pond.

Date	Topic	Reading	Assignment
1/20	Introduction
1/27	Discovering Extinction	OLR: Barrow Draft Chapters 1, 2, 3, and Bibliography	ARP
2/3	The Bison I	Isenberg, Intro., 1-3	ARP
2/10	The Bison II	Isenberg 4-6, conclusion	ARP
2/17	Avian Extinctions	Cokinos Intro, 1-5, 9	ARP
2/24	Protecting Predators I	Dunlap 1-7	ARP
3/2	Protecting Predators II	Dunlap 8-Epilogue	ARP
	Spring Break
3/16	The ESA and Its Critics	OLR	Abstract and Biblio
3/23	TBA
3/30	Progress Reports
4/6	Progress Reports
4/13	Progress Reports		Draft Paper
4/20	Presentations
4/27	Presentations
5/4	Final Paper		Final Paper